Repository | Book | Chapter

"Racism" as prejudice and discrimination came after races were posited and racism was practiced. Racism occurs in discourse (speech, gesture, symbols) and in action. Hearts-and-minds racism pertains to deliberate individual action. Racist hate crimes are a classic, broadly despised example of racist action, but racist action is more widespread than hate crimes that require immediate racist motives. Institutional racism affects millions and may lack individual intent. Still, its victims, such as poor nonwhite school children and minorities incarcerated for minor crimes or crimes they did not commit, may be harmed as much or more than with racist intent. Implicit racism includes white privilege, micro-aggression, and epistemic injustice.

Full citation: